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FOREWORD I met Phyllis Pease at a series of interdisciplinary conferences. These aimed to bring together a wide diversity of biological scientists with a common interest in the cell as an environment both for microorganisms and for DNA derived from other cells and organisms. The initial stimulus for these conferences was the developing acceptance in the late 1970s and early 1980s that during the evolution of the modern eukaryotic cell, one or more of its organelles had resulted from the early acquisition of microorganisms at some stage in the Precambrian era. It had taken some years for this concept of cell evolution to gain credence. Indeed, when the American biologist, Lynn Margulis, first advocated in 1969 that mitochondria had evolved from symbiotic aerobic bacteria, the great majority of cell scientists strongly disagreed with her. Some of their comments were quite derisory, and almost all funding agencies peremptorily refused her applications for research grants on the topic. In 1970, when I referred to Lynn’s ideas in a lecture to first year university students, I was reprimanded by a senior colleague for mentioning ‘such rubbish’. However, at that time, it had been universally believed for a century or more that the eukaryotic cell had evolved from a single prokaryotic cell simply by way of intracellular differentiation and compartmentalisation. It was unthinkable then that the DNA of mitochondria could have had any other derivation than from the cell nucleus. Nowadays, of course, the symbiotic origin of mitochondria and certain other cellular bodies is taken for granted by almost all cell biologists. The universality of the genetic code, and the basic similarity in mechanisms of protein synthesis between widely different organisms, make it easy to accept that the nucleus can control the growth and division of these ancestrally free-living bodies as well as accepting the transfer of some DNA from them. Indeed, the cell can be an environment for just fragments of DNA from other cells, whether of its own species or different species. It is well known that modern techniques of genetic engineering enable some genes to be transferred between widely different kinds of organism (such as between jellyfish and plants). It is reasonable to assume that various forms of ‘natural’ genetic engineering must have occurred widely throughout evolution - and are still occurring today. It was at one of these interdisciplinary conferences in 1989 that I heard Phyllis - a medical microbiologist - present a fascinating paper. She showed that the bacteria which cause tumours (such as crown gall) or root nodules on legumes can also be commonly isolated from humans. It is known that in crown gall, the bacterial tumour-inducing agent is actually borne on a plasmid, part of whose DNA may have been originally acquired from another plant. While this certainly did not indicate that these particular bacteria can cause human cancer, it did shed light on a possible role of foreign DNA carried by bacteria in human and other animal diseases. Sadly, these avenues have received little exploration in modern medicine, and in general, the willingness to explore ideas and techniques generated by such cross-disciplinary endeavours is uncommon. The situation of research into autoimmune diseases in general, and AIDS in particular, described in this book presents a sad example of this. Those of us like myself who are distant from AIDS research have derived our knowledge of it from popular science journals. We are led to believe there is incontestable, cast-iron proof that AIDS is caused by HIV. We naturally assume that the cell preparations used in experiments have been demonstrated to be free of contaminants by the usual rigorous tests for microbiological purity - and especially by electron microscopy. We take it for granted that the possibility that infective particles other than HIV are the causal agents has been ruled out by exhaustive, rigorously conducted experiments. It is therefore an eye-opener to read from this book that such evidence that AIDS is solely caused by HIV does not exist, and that research into autoimmune diseases in general leaves much to be desired. The absolute purity of cell preparations used in many experiments is to be seriously questioned. Koch’s postulates have not been proven. The straightforward, dispassionate analysis in this book of the experimental techniques used and the quality of the evidence they generate gives important grounds for concern, especially given the seriousness of the world-wide AIDS epidemic, and the huge investment in research based on the assumption that there is no other possible cause of AIDS than HIV. It is not uncommon for those whose views, however justified, which go against the grain of current scientific beliefs to be ignored or even derided. Unfortunately, Lynn Margulis’ experience in the early 1970s is but one of many examples of this. Sadly, there have also been recent examples of ostracism of those who dare to question whether HIV is the causal agent of AIDS. This particular book is not about ‘beliefs’, but about critical, careful analysis of the experimental techniques that are used. It reveals the lack of any determined pursuit of potentially valuable lines of investigation suggested either by deficiencies in these techniques, or by related situations in organisms other than human beings. I found it both a stimulating and a very salutary book to read - especially at a time when public scepticism about the outcomes of certain types of scientific research has reached a worrying level. It is very important that the critical analyses made in this book are widely read. David Smith Sir David Smith FRS Founder Member of the International Society of Endocytobiology Principal of Edinburgh University 1989-1994 Head of the largest graduate college (Wolfson) Oxford University 1994-2000 Currently government advisor on environmental concerns
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